bibliography

Borjas, G. J. (1999). Heaven's door: Immigration policy and the American economy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
A Cuban refugee, Borjas claims the core of today's immigration debate is deciding "how many" and "which ones" should be allowed to enter the United States. He identifies the top ten "symptoms" framing the debate and, surprisingly, counters the argument that mass immigration feeds American economic growth. He documents the decline immigrant skills and economic performance. The Canadia point system is offered as a model for determining who may enter the country. He admits that his own family would likely not have been able to immigrate to the U.S. if such a systerm were in place.

Brenner, R. (1998). Land of opportunity. Forbes, 162(8), 66-74.
A professor at McGill University's School of Managment, Brenner claims that the United States is "the most prosperous and powerful nation in the world" because of its open and sophisticated capital markets. Foreign-born entrepreneurs will continue to enter the U.S., take advantage of open access, and further the entire country's business success. Cites examples such as Jerry Yank, cofounder of Internet company Yahoo! who immigrated from Taiwan nineteen years ago and has now amassed a fortune exceeding $830 million.

Ebo, B. (1998). Adaptation and preservation: Communication patterns of African immigrants in America. In G. Gumpert & S. J. Drucker (Eds.), The huddled masses: Communication and immigration (Vol. 2, pp. 59-76). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Cocultural communication patterns show how immigrants adapt to their host culture while preserving practices from their culture of origin. Ebo reports on how contemporary African immigrants balace this acculturation process. He compares amalgamation ("melting pot") and Anglo-conformity theories and—after examining personal communications of subjects from nine African countries—defines acculturation as "the process of searching for a comfortable blend of communication practices of the host and indigenous cultures that allows immigrants to survive in the host culture and yet maintain affinity for their indigenous cultures."

Fursash, E. E. (1995). Finding emerging loan opportunities. Journal of Commercial Lending, 77(9), 7-9.
This brief article advises commercial lenders to stay aware of demographic changes in the marketplace. Fursash identifies five key trends, including ethnic and cultural diversity. He suggests lenders educate themselves on these changes in order to make better decisions, minimize risk, and find opportunities.

Immigration and Naturalization Service (1999). Emmigration: Immigration and emmigration by decade: 1901-1990. [Web page] Available: http://www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/aboutins/
statistics/300.htm [2000, April 18].
This table from the 1992 Statistical Yearbook is based on U.S. Bureau of the Census information and shows the net immigration to the United States by decade. The highest net immigration figure is 5,787,000 for 1901-1910 and the next highest (and by far the closest) is 5,738,000 in 1981-1990. Presumably, figures for the 1990's will be available after the current 2000 census has been tabulated.

Immigration and Naturalization Service (2000). State of Residence. [Web page] Available: http://www.ins.usdoj.gov/graphics/aboutins/
statistics/310.htm [2000, April 18].
These tables provide several views of immigration and naturalization for states and metropolitan areas for fiscal year 1996. Some statistics were culled from the 1990 Census.

Kesler, C. R. (1998). The promise of American citizenship. In N. M. J. Pickus (Ed.), Immigration and citizenship in the twenty-first century (pp. 237). Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Kesler's philosophical essay is part of a series of papers responding to the U.S. Commission on Immigration Reform's 1997 Report to Congress, Becoming an American: Immigration and Immigrant Policy. This author believes that the founding principles of liberty and equality in the U.S. are more powerful than its racist traditions. He believes that all citizens should be embraced as "Americans" by virtue of having accepted those founding principles and he rejects multicultural conceptions of citizenships ("Thought is color-blind."). In other words, he seems to be promoting a focus on the commonalities of immigrants who choose to become citizens. He enthusiastically supports policy change in what he calls "slow progress to the good."

Lacey, D. (1990). The essential immigrant. New York: Hippocrene.
Lacey argues that mass immigration is indemic to economic growth for the United States. He describes recent poverty conditions of Mexican border factories (the maquiladoras) and compares them to the development of U.S. immigration legislation and rivalry between immigrant groups. Although lacking a needed bibliography, The Essential Immigrant provides reasonable evidence to support significant restructuring of immigration policies and prejudices. The chapters "A Brief History of American Immigrant Rivalries" and "The Question of Space and Location" are especially noteworthy.

Laguerre, M. S. (1998). Rotating credit associations and the diasporic economic. Journal of Developmental Entrepreneurship, 3(1), 23-34.
The Haitian community in New York practices a folk banking system know as a sangue. Three case studies illuminate how the sangue operate and what challenges they face, mostly from within the ethic enclave.

Light, I. (1996). A self-help solution to fight urban poverty. The American Enterprise, 7(July/Aug), 5-2.
Light, a sociology professor at the Univerisity of California—Los Angeles, has studied immigrant entrepreneurs and focussed much research on Korean business owners in L.A. In this article, he describes the small lending clubs called rotating savings and credit associations or ROSCAs. The Korean kye, the Chinese hui, the Mexican tanda, and the Vietnamese ho were examples. Light claims U.S. public policy impedes the efforts of people who seek to improve their economic status by using ROSCAs to save money.

Light, I., & Rosenstein, C. (1995). Race, ethnicity, and entrepreneurship in urban America. (Vol. 8). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
This book presents the findings of an exhaustive study of self-employment statistics from 272 of the largest metropolitan areas (approximately 72 million people). Light and Rosenstein examine data for the largest ethnoracial categories (whites, African-Americans, Asians, and Hispanics) and discovered that immigrants may account from 14% to 57% of the increase in non-farm entrepreneurship between 1970 and 1980. They suggest that the nature of entrepreneurship should be expanded in research and government to address urban "economic growth, crime reduction, and poverty alleviation."

Lindberg, R. (1993). Passport's guide to ethnic Chicago: A complete guide to the many faces and cultures of Chicago. Lincolnwood, IL: Passport Books.
More than simply a travel guide, this book provides brief histories of ethnic communities in Chicago, IL. German, Chinese, Native American, and a dozen other cultures are discussed. Lindberg focuses on Europeans presumably because of their majority status in the metropolitan population. Additional information about different Latin American, Asian, and African immigrants would be welcome. Aside from this, the histories are quite insightful and the festival, museum, and shop listings are a rich resource.

Office of Advocacy, U.S. Small Business Adminstration (1998). Small Business Answer Card. [PDF document available via Web page]. Available: http://www.sba.gov/ADVO/stats/#GR [2000, April 18]
This report analyzes statistics from the U.S. Bureau of the Census to assess the status of small business, including capital return, business loans, failures, and changes in woman and minority ownership.

Schuck, P. H. (1998). Citizens, strangers, and in-betweens: Essays on immigration and citizenship. (Vol. 1). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
This deep, wide examination of immigration history and policy is a collection of fourteen essays Schuck of Yale's Law School wrote between 1984 and 1997. In these works, he describes the "historical evolution of the immigration control system," as well as current policy and processes. He asserts that most Americans fall into the ideological position of "pragmatic restrictivism" regarding immigration, which allows an open dialogue about how to apply thoughtful limitations. He also acknowledges the paradox of public sentiment: "Americans like immigrants more than they like immigration."

Waldinger, R., Aldrich, H., & Ward, R. (1990). Opportunities, group characteristics, and strategies. In R. Waldinger & H. Aldrich (Eds.), Ethnic entrepreneurs: Immigrant business in industrial societies (Vol. 1, pp. 13-48). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
This essay supports the idea of ethnic small business as a route to economic mobility. An immigrant's success in owning a small business depends on their access to opportunities, group characteristics, and historical conditions. But the very act of leaving one's home to make a life in a new society is self-selective. Immigrants tend to be more able, better prepared, and more inclined to take risks than those who remain in the home country. These traits help immigrant entrepreneurs face common problems for ethnic business owners, such as acquiring skills and managing relations with customers and suppliers.

Wulff, E. B. (1992). New immigration act will attract franchisees. Franchising World, 24(3), 34-35.
According to this short piece, recent changes in immigration policy may provide new investors for franchisors. The Immigration Act of 1990 focuses criteria on the potential economic contributions of people coming into the United States. Wulff predicts that these new foreign-born entrepreneurs could use the special visa classification to find viable opportunities in franchising.